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Central Asian Ovtcharka Information & Dog Breed Facts

Collection of all the general dog breed info about Central Asian Ovtcharka so you can get to know the breed more.

Group Guard Dogs
Popularity Rank414
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Central Asian Ovtcharka dog profile picture
OriginRussia flagRussia
Other Names
What other names does the Central Asian Ovtcharka have?
AlabaiAziatCentral Asian OvcharkaCentral Asian OvtcharkaCentral Asian OwtcharkaCentral Asian SheepdogMiddle Asian OvcharkaMiddle Asian OwtcharkaMiddle Asian SheepdogMiddle Asian ShepherdMiddle Asian Shepherd DogTurkmen AlabaiVolkadovWolf CrusherCentral Asian ShepherdSredneasiatskaia Ovtcharka
Breed Type
What type of dog breed is it?
Purebred

Central Asian Ovtcharka Size and Weight

Size
Is a Central Asian Ovtcharka small, medium or large dog?

How big do Central Asian Ovtcharka get?

What is the average size of a Central Asian Ovtcharka?

LargeGiant
Weight
How much does the Central Asian Ovtcharka weigh? How much should a Central Asian Ovtcharka weight? What is the normal weight of a Central Asian Ovtcharka? How much does a full-grown Central Asian Ovtcharka weight?
121-176 pounds (55-80 kg)
Average Weight
What is the average weight of a Central Asian Ovtcharka?
148.5 pounds (67.5 kg)
Height
How tall is the Central Asian Ovtcharka? Central Asian Ovtcharka height:
27-32 inches (68.5-81 cm)
Average Height
What is the average height of a Central Asian Ovtcharka?
29.5 inches (75 cm)

Central Asian Ovtcharka Price and Availability

Price
How much does the Central Asian Ovtcharka puppy cost? What is the price range of this puppy? What is the average price of a Central Asian Ovtcharka in the United States? How much money is a Central Asian Ovtcharka?

Where to buy a Central Asian Ovtcharka with a good pedigree?

$1200-$2500
If you choose to purchase the Central Asian Ovtcharka, you should know that the mentioned amount of money is an average of the collected data from breeders’ sites and puppy finder places. If you have a Central Asian Ovtcharka for sale, please advertise it on a reliable website to make sure the Central Asian Ovtcharka gets to a happy place.
Availability
How easy is it to get a Central Asian Ovtcharka? How many Central Asian Ovtcharka are there in the world?
Rare: You may rarely see each other in everyday life, but you might catch a glimpse of each other at dog shows.

There are very few of them, and there have been times when they have almost drifted to the brink of extinction, so few are left.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Trainability and Intelligence

Intelligent Rank
How smart is the Central Asian Ovtcharka? Is the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed dumb or smart?
Average: It takes patience to teach this breed any tricks or commands, but the effort is worth it. They understand and remember new commands after an average of 25-40 repetitions.

The Central Asian Ovtcharka ranks average in the intelligence ranking of dogs.

Trainability
Are Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs easy to train? Do they go well on dog training? How hard is it to train a Central Asian Ovtcharka?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are hard to train. They don't really get the association between commands and actions. If you want them to obey, you should be very consistent and patient while teaching.
Watchdog Ability
Is Central Asian Ovtcharka good as a watchdog? Are they alert at night?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are one of the best watchdogs. Their main job is to observe and they're very consistent in their effort. The best vocal cords and sense of hearing belong to them. Usually, they're very territorial and protective about their property, so the Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs will alert you if they sense something different.
Guarding Behavior / Territorial
Do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs have aggressive behavior to protect their home/house/territory? Do they have guarding instincts?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are extremely protective guard dogs. This breed doesn't hesitate to protect its territory so the Central Asian Ovtcharka can be a good choice if you want an excellent guard dog. Keep calm and the Central Asian Ovtcharka will take care of unwanted people or animals.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Personality and Temperament

Temperament
What kind of personality does the Central Asian Ovtcharka have? What characteristics or traits does the breed have?
CuriousIndependentStrongBoldAdaptableImperturbable
Sensitivity Level
How sensitive are they? Central Asian Ovtcharka sensitivity:
They are a little bit more sensitive than other dog breeds. Soft punishment affects them emotionally. Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs don't tolerate irregular daily routines, noisy households, and frequent guest visits really well.

They are receptive to their owner's emotions and make wonderful family companions.

Affection Level
How affectionate are they? Is a Central Asian Ovtcharka a good family dog?
High: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are genuinely loyal, soft and gentle, loving, and affectionate dogs toward their handlers. They enjoy quality time with their owners despite the activity and are considered great therapy dogs for those in need. This breed responds strongly to their handler's emotions because they bond closely. Their happiness is your happiness.
Social Needs
How much social interaction does the Alabai need? Central Asian Ovtcharka social needs:
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are a social breed. They enjoy being around people or other animals. This breed doesn't tolerate being left alone.
Impulse to Wander or Roam
How likely is the Central Asian Ovtcharka to run away? Does this breed explore or wander a lot? Does Central Asian Ovtcharka roam?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs have average wanderlust potential. Sometimes they like to explore the world and they might escape once or twice, but usually, they prefer staying safely at home. Safer to teach them how to get back to you on command.
Prey Drive
Do this canine have a strong prey drive? Does Central Asian Ovtcharka have high prey drive?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs have an average prey drive, which means that they don't have a high impulse to chase and catch something like a cat or any other small aminals, but it might happen. Training can help to achieve good behavior.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Activity and Playfulness

Playfulness
How playful is this breed?
Central Asian Ovtcharkas are not the most playful dog breed. Sometimes they do like playing, but that's not their favorite activity.
Barking
Do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs bark a lot? Are they barkers/noisy? Why does my Alabai bark?
Low to Average: The Central Asian Ovtcharka rarely barks. This breed could be a good choice if you're looking for a quiet breed. They don't bark unless there is a good reason.

Top reasons for barking: protection, alarm, fear, boredom, attention-seeking, greeting, separation anxiety, compulsive barking.

Apartment Friendly
Is Central Asian Ovtcharka good as an apartment dog? Can they live in a flat? Can you have a Central Asian Ovtcharka in an apartment?
Not an apartment-friendly dog the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed. If you don't have a garden, think carefully about your decision, keeping Central Asian Ovtcharka indoors can cause a lot of problems.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Adaptability and Independence

Adaptability
Are they adaptable and easy-going?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs adapt well to lifestyle changes and different living environments. They don't mind moving from one place to another with their owner.
Tolerates Being Left Alone
How long can a Central Asian Ovtcharka be left alone? How long can you leave a Central Asian Ovtcharka alone?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs do best when a family member is at home during the day or if their workplace is dog-friendly so they can take the dog at work.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Bite Characteristics

Bite Force PSI
Does the Central Asian Ovtcharka has a hard bite? What is the bite force of a Central Asian Ovtcharka? How much bite force does a Central Asian Ovtcharka have? How strong is a Central Asian Ovtcharka bite?

Above 400 PSI 🔼

Central Asian Ovtcharka bite force: The Strongest. The Central Asian Ovtcharka bite force is among the strongest in the canine world. The bite force Central Asian Ovtcharka measurements are typically quite high, which is a testament to their powerful and large stature. The bite force of Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs is impressive, and their Central Asian Ovtcharka bite PSI is reflective of their powerful nature.

The Central Asian Ovtcharka PSI bite should be respected, and appropriate precautions should be taken when interacting with these dogs. The PSI of a Central Asian Ovtcharka bite is high, making them one of the strongest breeds in terms of bite force.

They are very protective of themselves and their families, therefore a dog bite from them could be exceptionally dangerous with their PSI being above 400.

To ensure a well-behaved and controlled dog, it's important to learn how to train a Central Asian Ovtcharka puppy not to bite from an early age. It is important that they’re trained to be around others safely.

Biting Potential
Do Central Asian Ovtcharka bite humans? How likely are you to get bitten from the Alabai? What are the odds of getting bitten by a Central Asian Ovtcharka? Why do dog bites happen?

Low 🔽

The Central Asian Ovtcharka has a low chance of biting somebody. Top reasons for dog bite: protection, pain, excitement, herding instinct, being provoked. (Data based on the available online bite statistics.)
Mouthiness
How much mouthing/nipping/play biting does the Central Asian Ovtcharka do?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs have an average tendency to nip, chew, playbite, or herd people. It's a common habit during puppyhood, not aggressive behavior. These "bites" don't hurt, but Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs need to be taught a good attitude.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Health and Lifespan

Health Issues
Is it a healthy or unhealthy breed? Do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs have health problems or genetic diseases?
Central Asian Ovtcharkas tend to have more frequent health issues than other breeds. Regular vet check-ups are needed.
Health Problems
What genetic/health problems does the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed have? What are the health issues and concerns of the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed? Most common health risks of Central Asian Ovtcharka:
Hip Dysplasia Elbow Dysplasia
Veterinarian Visits
How often does the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed need to go to the vet? How often should you take your dog to the vet? How often should the Central Asian Ovtcharka see the vet?
Frequent
The Central Asian Ovtcharka should have a complete physical check-up at least once (but preferably twice) per year. If your dog shows any symptoms, call your veterinarian.
Life Expectancy
How long do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs live? How old can a Central Asian Ovtcharka be? What is the age limit of the Central Asian Ovtcharka? How many years can the oldest Central Asian Ovtcharka live?

What is the average life expectancy / lifespan of a Central Asian Ovtcharka?

How long is the lifespan of a Central Asian Ovtcharka?

12-14 years
The average lifespan of Central Asian Ovtcharka: 13 years
Weather and Climate
Which weather condition is preferred by this dog? Can they tolerate hot or cold weather and climate?
Prefers average to cold weather conditions
The Central Asian Ovtcharka can adapt to well to cold weather conditions, some dogs even can be a good mountain dog.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Energy and Activity

Energy Level
How much energy does the Central Asian Ovtcharka have? What is the activity level of the Central Asian Ovtcharka?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs have a higher energy level than other dog breeds. If you want a dog for snuggling on the couch, this breed isn't the perfect choice for you.
Activity Requirement / Exercise Need
How much exercise does a Central Asian Ovtcharka need? How much exercise do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs require per day?

Do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs need a lot of exercises?

Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs need quite a lot of exercise. Daily walks should be on schedule. If you live an active life, this breed can be a good choice for you.
Sleeping Need
How much sleep does the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed need?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are quite energetic dogs and they don't spend too much time with sleeping. If you live an active life, this breed can be a good choice for you.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Diet and Weight Management

Average daily food consumption
How much food does a Central Asian Ovtcharka need? What dog products should I buy? How much food does a Central Asian Ovtcharka breed eat per day? What is good dog food for Central Asian Ovtcharka? How much food should I feed my Central Asian Ovtcharka?
8 to 10 cups of high-quality dry food a day, divided into two meals
Weight Gain Potential / Prone to Obesity
How easy to gain weight for this dog? Central Asian Ovtcharka risk for obesity:
Average to High: If you don't pay attention to the Central Asian Ovtcharka's weight, he can easily gain weight. More than one daily walk should be on schedule. To make your dog happy and fit, feed him with quality dry dog food and live an active life together. Try to find the happy medium between exercise and feeding.

If you notice any weight gain, consult your veterinarian and make a diet plan. Reduce unhealthy food and snacks, and measure the Central Asian Ovtcharka weight regularly.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Allergies and Grooming

Coat / Hair Types
What type of coat does the Central Asian Ovtcharka have? What does this canine coat/fur look like?
DenseThickDouble
Colors
What color is the breed's coat? What color are proper Central Asian Ovtcharka coats?
Black White Fawn Brindle Grey RussetStrawFlecked
Grooming
How to groom the Central Asian Ovtcharka and how often? How often should I take my Central Asian Ovtcharka to the groomer?
Easy to groom: The Central Asian Ovtcharka doesn't require a lot of grooming. Seasonal flea treatment is needed, but cutting the dog's hair by a professional groomer isn't necessary.

Ears and eyes should be cleaned regularly to avoid infections. Central Asian Ovtcharka is a good choice if you don't have the time, skill, or money to take care of a high-maintenance dog.

Recommended for beginners.
Shedding Level
How much do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs shed? How to control, reduce and prevent the shedding of the Alabai? Do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs shed a lot?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs shed above average. It's a natural process of the hair growth cycle. The amount and frequency of hair loss mostly depend on their health status and breed type. If you don't like vacuum cleaning, you might have to reconsider your choice of having a puppy from the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed.
Bath Time / Bathing Frequency
How often does the Central Asian Ovtcharka need a bath? How often should you give a Central Asian Ovtcharka a bath? Can I bathe my Central Asian Ovtcharka every day?
3-4 weeks
More often than average. These dog coats tend to be longer, softer, and oilier than short-haired breeds. While a good bath every now and then is a great way to keep your buddy from becoming overly smelly, be mindful about overbathing.

Bathing will wash away your dog’s natural oils, while a simple brushing every few days should keep them clean.

Hypoallergenic
Is the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed hypoallergenic?
No
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs don't do well with allergy sufferers by causing allergic reactions. Some dog breeds are even considered to higher possibility of an allergic response. Coat type isn't necessarily relevant, because most people are allergic to dander (flakes on the dog's skin) or saliva, not actually to dog hair.
Stinkiness
How stinky is this dog? Why does it smell bad and how to get rid of the smell?

Medium

The Central Asian Ovtcharka has an average chance of bad smell. Top reasons for dog stinkiness: infection of bad tooth/ear/skin folds, gas attacks.
Drooling Tendency
Does the Central Asian Ovtcharka drool?
The Central Asian Ovtcharka drools quite a lot, so if you dislike being covered by slobber spots on your clothes, you may want to choose another dog breed. Drooling is the unintentional saliva flowing outside of the mouth. It can be completely normal or a sign of a health problem. Certain dog breeds drool more than others, just like the Central Asian Ovtcharka.

If you notice any change in your dog's drooling habit, you should contact a vet as soon as possible.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Good With

Pet Friendly
Are they pet-friendly dogs? How well do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs get along with other pets? Are Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs good with pets? What is this canine temperament with other pets?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are generally with other pets.
Stranger Friendly
Are they aggressive or friendly towards/with strangers? Central Asian Ovtcharka temperament with other people:
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are not stranger friendly dogs.
Child Friendly
Are Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs kid-friendly? Are they good with young children? Central Asian Ovtcharka temperament with children:
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are kid-friendly dogs. This breed is a good choice if you have children.
Cat Friendly
How well do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs get along with cats? Are they good with kittens? What is this fido's temperament with cats? Can they be good with cats? Can the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed live with a cat?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are average friendly towards cats.
Dog Friendly
Is Central Asian Ovtcharka good with other dogs? Are they dog-friendly dogs? How well do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs get along with other dogs?
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are not the most dog-friendly dogs. If you want more dogs in your family or you'd like to join dog meetups, the Central Asian Ovtcharka is not a good choice.
Good For First Time Owners
Is Central Asian Ovtcharka breed good for first-time owners? Do they make a good dog for novice owners? Is Central Asian Ovtcharka breed suitable for first-time owners?
No
Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are not good for novice owners, due to their stubborn personality.
Office Friendly
Are Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs good office canines? Do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs make good office-friendly pets? Can they be office dogs?
No
Central Asian Ovtcharka is not the best dog breed for office environment.
Senior Citizens Friendly
Are they senior citizens friendly dogs? How well do Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs get along with the elderly people? What is the Alabai temperament with senior people? Are Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs good for elderly owners?
Central Asian Ovtcharkas are usually recommended for elderly people.

Central Asian Ovtcharka As a Working Dog

Service Dog
Are they good as service dogs? Can Central Asian Ovtcharka be a guide dog? Are they used as seeing-eye dogs?

Not really

This breed generally not used as a service dog. A service dog is a term used in the USA to refer to any type of assistance dog specifically trained to help people who have disabilities, such as visual impairment, hearing impairments, mental disorders, seizures, mobility impairment, and diabetes. Service dogs are protected under the ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act).

Central Asian Ovtcharka is not the best breed for service purposes.

Therapy Dog
Are they good as therapy dogs? Can Central Asian Ovtcharka be a therapy dog? Are they good anxiety dogs? Can a Central Asian Ovtcharka be an emotional support animal?

Not really

This breed is generally not used as a therapy dog. A therapy dog is a dog that might be trained to provide affection, comfort, and love to people in hospitals, retirement homes, nursing homes, schools, hospices, disaster areas, and people with anxiety disorders or autism.

Central Asian Ovtcharka is not the best breed for therapeutic purposes.

Detection Dog or Sniffer Dog
Are they good as detection dogs? Can Central Asian Ovtcharka be a sniffer dog?

Not really

They are not typically employed for this type of work, but there may be exceptional cases. A detection dog or sniffer dog is a dog that is trained to use its senses (mostly its smell) to detect substances such as explosives, illegal drugs, wildlife scat, currency, blood, and contraband electronics such as illicit mobile phones.

Central Asian Ovtcharka is not the best breed for detection purposes.

Search and Rescue Dog (SAR)
Are they good as SAR dogs? Can Central Asian Ovtcharka be a search and rescue dog?

Not really

This dog breed is not typically used as a search and rescue dog. The use of dogs in search and rescue (SAR) is a valuable component in wilderness tracking, natural disasters, mass casualty events, and locating missing people.

The Central Asian Ovtcharka is not the best breed for SAR purposes.

Boat and Sailor Dog
Are they good as boat dogs? Can Central Asian Ovtcharka be a boat dog?

Not really

Central Asian Ovtcharka breed usually doesn't like being on a boat.

Boat dogs were typically bred for their strength, stamina, and water resistance, as they were often required to perform tasks such as pulling in fishing nets, and jumping into the water to retrieve ropes or lines, or helping to move cargo.

Sailor dog is a type of dog that was bred to accompany sailors on their voyages. They were typically used for three purposes: as a working dog, a watchdog, and as a companion. A boat dog is a term used to describe a type of dog that was traditionally bred and used as a working dog on boats.

Cart Pulling or Drafting Dog
Are they good as cart pulling dogs? Can Central Asian Ovtcharka be a drafting dog?

Yes

A drafting dog or draft dog is a dog bred and used for cart pulling. Dogs bred for this work have strong builds and qualities that are needed, strength and determination.

Central Asian Ovtcharka breed is a good choice for drafting purposes.

Fighting Dog / Military Dog
Where Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs used as fighting / military dogs in history?

Not really

In history, this breed was not really used for combat dog.

Central Asian Ovtcharka Reproducibility

Gestation Length
How long is a Central Asian Ovtcharka pregnant?How long does it take to have puppies? How to tell if the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed is pregnant?

60-64 days

Reproductive cycle of the female Central Asian Ovtcharka: The first period called Proestrus lasts for about 9 days.

During this time the females start to attract males. You can notice by swelling vulva and bloody discharge.

The second part is the Estrus when the female is receptive for the male. It lasts for about 3 to 11 days.

The sign of the proestrus part is the soft and enlarged vulva. The discharge decreases and lightens in color.

The third part is the Diestrus. Normally, it occurs around day 14. In this period the female’s discharge changes for vivid red and coming to its end. The vulva returns to average, and she will no longer permit mating.

The fourth part called the Anestrus. The time frame between heat periods normally lasts about six months.

Litter Frequency

Once a year.

More frequent breeding is not healthy. It is very important not to buy a dog from a puppy mill, where the needs of the pups and their mothers are ignored. It's an inhumane high-volume dog breeding facility, where puppies born several times a year.
Litter Size
How many puppies can the Central Asian Ovtcharka have in a litter? How many puppies can the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed have for the first time? How many puppies does a Central Asian Ovtcharka have? How many puppies can a Central Asian Ovtcharka give birth to?
4-10 puppies

Central Asian Ovtcharka Recognition

AKC Group
Is Central Asian Ovtcharka recognized by the American Kennel Club?
Not recognized by the American Kennel Club.
FCI Group
Is Central Asian Ovtcharka recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI)?
Not recognized by FCI.
Breed Recognition
What kennel clubs and organizations recognize or register the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed?
American Canine RegistryAmerica's Pet RegistryDog Registry of America Inc.Federation Cynologique InternationaleNorth American Purebred Registry, Inc.American Canine Association, Inc.Australian National Kennel CouncilNational Kennel ClubUnited Kennel ClubAmerican Rare Breed AssociationFoundation Stock Service

Central Asian Ovtcharka Pros and Cons

Pros
  • Grooming: Easy to groom: The Central Asian Ovtcharka doesn't require a lot of grooming.
  • Watchdog Ability: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are one of the best watchdogs.
  • Adaptability: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs adapt well to lifestyle changes and different living environments.
  • Child Friendly: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are kid-friendly dogs.
  • Senior Citizens Friendly: Central Asian Ovtcharkas are usually recommended for elderly people.
  • Cart Pulling or Drafting Dog: A drafting dog or draft dog is a dog bred and used for cart pulling.
Cons
  • Trainability: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are hard to train.
  • Health Issues: Central Asian Ovtcharkas tend to have more frequent health issues than other breeds.
  • Hypoallergenic: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs don't do well with allergy sufferers by causing allergic reactions.
  • Apartment Friendly: Not an apartment-friendly dog the Central Asian Ovtcharka breed.
  • Shedding Level: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs shed above average.
  • Drooling Tendency: The Central Asian Ovtcharka drools quite a lot, so if you dislike being covered by slobber spots on your clothes, you may want to choose another dog breed.
  • Weight Gain Potential / Prone to Obesity: Average to High: If you don't pay attention to the Central Asian Ovtcharka's weight, he can easily gain weight.
  • Tolerates Being Left Alone: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs do best when a family member is at home during the day or if their workplace is dog-friendly so they can take the dog at work.
  • Dog Friendly: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are not the most dog-friendly dogs.
  • Office Friendly: Central Asian Ovtcharka is not the best dog breed for office environment.
  • Good For First Time Owners: Central Asian Ovtcharka dogs are not good for novice owners, due to their stubborn personality.

Rate The Central Asian Ovtcharka Breed

Central Asian Ovtcharka Comments, Reviews and Questions

  • Angela Gibbs

    Apr 28, 2021, 11:07:56 AM:

    We adopted an CAO one year ago, we were a bit in doubt because they are strong en hard to train. But we had no regrets. She is adorable, loyal to the bone, friendly, calm character. If you have the space and time it's the best dog to have as a companion.

  • Bill Stocker

    Aug 10, 2019, 1:00:47 PM:

    I bread these central Asian Sheppard’s A few years ago. If you are lucky to get hold of one of these dogs, Then you have been lucky to have found, A Legend!. He will give up his life to protect you and his family. What a dog, “A Legend indeed”